In the last article, Cardigan Fair mentioned
the basics of wool. There are two major sources of shrinkage in
wool-containing fabrics, which may be encountered during laundering: relaxation
and felting shrinkage.
Physical properties
Crimps: Wool fibre is more or less wavy and
has twisted. This waviness is termed as ‘crimp’. Finer the wool the more will
be the crimps in it. Merino wool has 30 crimps per inch while coarse wool has
one or two.
Effect of friction: Friction will soften the
wool fibre especially when wet and thus is advantageous in maintaining smooth,
soft texture of fabrics.
Effect of heat: Low heat has no effect but
strong heat weakens the fibre and destroys the colour of the fibre.
Effect of moisture: Wool is the most
hygroscopic in nature. It can absorb up to 50% of its weight and carry up to
20% weight, without giving the feeling of being wet. Upon drying it losses
moisture slowly preventing rapid evaporation thus avoiding chilling feel to the
user. It absorbs perspiration after violent exercise and guards the body
against the sudden change in temperature.
Felting: Wool fibres interlock and contract
when exposed to heat, moisture, and pressure. The scale-like the exterior of
the fibres contributes to felting. The fibres get softened in weak alkaline
solutions due to the expansion of scales at their free edges, with friction and
pressure they again interlock to form a felt. This property is used in making felts
for hats, shoes, floor-coverings and soundproofing purposes.
Heat conductivity: Wool fibre is a part is a
poor conductor of heat and therefore the fabrics made from the fibre are
considered most suitable as winter wear.
Resiliency: Wool is highly resilient and
comes to its original shape when hanged after wrinkled or created.
Strength: It is stronger than silk. When wet
wool loses about 25% of its strength. Longer the fibre the greater will be the
strength of the yarn.
#??#
Stretchability: Wool is highly elastic. It is
about 10 to 30% stretched when dry and 40 to 50% when wet upon receiving
pressure upon drying it readily regains its original dimensions.
Shrink-ability: Wool is resistant to
shrinkage. However long exposure to moisture may cause shrinkage.
Chemical properties
Wool is resistant to acid, whereas cotton and
cellulose are severely damaged if exposed to acid. This difference is utilised
in carbonising wool to remove excessive cellulosic impurities, such as burr and
vegetable matter. Wool is treated with a solution of sulfuric acid and is then
baked to destroy the impurities with only minimal damage to the wool.
The differences in the chemical structure of
the various fibres mean that different classes of dyestuffs are required to
cover the range of fibre types. Polypropylene and polyethylene do not absorb
the dyes used to colour wool so any wool pack contamination from these fibres
in the final product will appear obvious. The move to nylon woolpacks does not
necessarily prevent contamination; however,
as the chemical structure of nylon is similar to wool, it absorbs wool dyes and
this makes any contamination less obvious.
Characteristics of Wool Fibers
and Products
Anti-static — because wool can absorb
moisture vapour, it tends not to create static electricity, so it is less
likely to cling uncomfortably to your body than other fabrics.
Anti-wrinkle — at a microscopic level, each
wool fibre is like a coiled spring that returns to its natural shape after
being bent. This gives wool garments a natural wrinkle resistance.
Biodegradable — When wool is disposed of, it
will naturally decompose in soil in a matter of months to years, releasing valuable
nutrients back into the earth.
Biodegradable — When wool is disposed of, it
will naturally decompose in soil in a matter of months to years, releasing
valuable nutrients back into the earth.
Breathable — wool fibres can absorb large
quantities of moisture vapour then move it away to evaporate into the air. Wool
clothing is extremely breathable and less prone to clamminess.
Elastic — natural elasticity helps wool
garments stretch with your body, yet return to their original shape. So fine
wool clothing is ideal to wear when exercising.
#??#
Fire resistant — wool is flame retardant,
doesn’t melt and stick to the skin, and even self-extinguishes when the source
of flame is removed.
Nature’s fibre — Wool is grown year-round
from a simple blend of water, air, sunshine and grass.
Odour resistant — in contrast to
synthetics, wool can absorb moisture
vapour, which means less sweat on your body. They even absorb and locks away
the odours from sweat, which are then released during washing.
Renewable — every year sheep produce a new
fleece, making wool a completely renewable fibre source
Stain resistant — wool fibres have a natural
protective outer layer that prevents stains from being absorbed. And because
wool tends not to generate static, it attracts less dust and lint.
Soft — Wool fibres are extremely fine,
enabling them to bend and feel soft and gentle next to your skin.
Sun-safe — wool is much better at protecting
skin against UV radiation than most synthetics and cotton. So the whole family
will be safer wearing wool on sunny days.
Sun-safe — wool is much better at protecting
skin against UV radiation than most synthetics and cotton. So the whole family
will be safer wearing wool on sunny days.
Warm and cool — in contrast to synthetics,
wool is an active fibre that reacts to changes in body temperature. So it helps
you stay warm when the weather is cold, and cool when the weather is hot.
Summary of Characteristics of
Wool Fibers
Wool is a protein fibre that comes from a
variety of animals.
Sheering is done by hand, but the
manufacturing of wool fabric is done by machine.
Wool is ideal for cool weather garments such
as sweaters.
Flame resistant (wool usually extinguishes
itself when the source of flame is removed).
Weaker than cotton or linen, especially when
wet.
Fibres range from one to fourteen inches long.
Most valued for its textured appearance and
warmth.
Must be washed gently or dry cleaned.
Can be damaged by chlorine bleach.
Moths and carpet beetles eat wool.
Springs back into shape after being crushed.
An excellent insulator as woollens (80% air).
#??#
Absorbs moisture which is held inside the
fibre (the wool will still feel dry even on a humid day).
Accepts dyes easily (“dyed in the wool”).
Quality of wool varies with the breed of
sheep.
Does not attract dirt or static electricity.
Wool products labelling Act permits the word
“wool” to be used for fibres from sheep, Angora or Cashmere goats, camel,
alpaca, llama, and vicuna.
Source: Textile School
#??#
Noise Pollution in Textile Industry: Ecological Hazards and Remedial Measures
Knitting Fair get new that among many
pollution-creating industries, textile has a larger share in terms of its
impact with regard to noise, air, and effluent. It is, therefore, felt
worthwhile to study the environmental hazards associated with various
operations of textiles. In this paper, pollution arising out of noise and air
is discussed. Areas of concern and their appropriate rectifying procedures are
also taken into account.
Ecological degradation happens in natural
fiber right from cultivation to finishing of the ultimate product. Prominent
parameters and the possible package of corrective measures are highlighted.
Synthetic fiber industry is not an exception to environmental pollution and
therefore various pollution-creating activities are pointed out. Management of
various textile wastes is also mentioned in this paper.
Introduction
Indian textile industry is a unique
combination of growth, development and export performance. This identity is now
been checked and challenged. Where is the problem? The concern is because of
the anthropogenic sources of pollution. Green parties today insisting upon the
manufacturing, processing and disposal of textile products as per environmental
norms. The commercial decision in global business now depends on how much
conscious we are in protecting our environment. So, there is a wake-up call for
the textile industry.
What we are doing to harm our environment?
Which are the areas causing destruction to our biosphere? What should we do to
remain in the competition? Will our business exist? These are the questions to
be investigated and the motivating factor for this study.
Eco Degradation in Textile
Industry
Textile industry contributes 30% of India’s
export. It produces over 400 million meters of cloth and around 1000 million kg
of yarn per annum. The textile sector is labour intensive and nearly a million
workers are associated in various unit operations of about 700 mills. There
exist a number of important environmental benchmarks, associated with the key
environmental issues. Because of the nature of the industry, many of these are
directed towards wet processing which tends to be the most obviously polluting
sub-sector.
Textile wet processing activity contributes
about 70% of pollution in the textile industry. It is estimated that there are
around 12,500 textile processing units wherein the requirement of water ranges
from 10 litres with an average of 100 litres per kg [1]. Right from cotton
cultivation and manufacture of fibres, spinning, weaving, processing and
finishing, more than 14,000 dyes and chemicals are used and a significant
quantity of these goes in the solid, liquid and air wastes, thereby impart
pollution of air, land and surface water.
Towards the end of the 20th century, the
world has become more environmentally conscious and thus the green textile
concept is emerged to facilitate eco-management in the textile arena. Different
unit operations, which contribute to eco-degradation, are described and
analysed in this chapter.
Noise Pollution
Noise is one of the most pervasive
environmental problems. There is no doubt that it has an adverse effect on
human beings and their surroundings.
Noise Levels in Textile Machinery
1.Noise Levels in Yarn Production
Because of high spindle speeds reached on new
machines (ring spindles up to 20000 rpm, rotor up to 110000 rpm) spinning mills
can generally be assumed to generate a great deal of noise. Noise levels of 70
to 100 dB are commonly recorded in workrooms.
2.Noise Levels in Weaving and Knitting
Although considerable progress has been made
in the weaving sector over the last 20 years, the whole area of noise nuisance
and, closely associated with it, vibration coming from looms, cause major
problems.
Noise levels of 100 to 120 dB must be
expected in weaving rooms, according to the design, type, fitting, erection and
number of looms used, fabric structure, building type and size etc. The
vibration transmitted from the running looms to the building can, under certain
circumstances, cause a nuisance to the local population and damage to nearby
buildings, and to avoid these special vibration absorbers are now provided.
However, the permissible limit set up at 90
dB by Federal Standards of the USA for a maximum exposure duration of 8 hours
per day. Typical values of the noise level in textile machines are shown in
Table I.
Noise Level Remedial Measures
Noise level can be lowered by the use of
noise control enclosures, absorbers, silencers and baffles and by the use of
personal protective equipment (PPE), such as earmuffs. Where technical methods
are insufficient, noise exposure may be reduced by the use of hearing
protection and by administrative controls such as limiting the time spent in a
noisy environment and scheduling noisy operation outside normal shifts or at a
distant location. Even though noise-reducing measures may have been
incorporated in the design of the machinery, the greater output may generate
higher noise levels. For instance, every doubling of the speed of rotary
machines the noise emission rises by about 7 dB, warp knitting machines by 12
dB and in fans by around 18 to 24 dB.
Noise pollution is a problem that has
unsatisfactorily been tackled so far. Though noise-absorbing sheets are used to
cover the inner walls of loom shed, still more appropriate means need to be
devised. In modern shuttle less looms because of better engineering designs of
the machines the noise level is lesser. But those shuttle-less looms are
costly.
Source:
Subrata Das, Dr.
Knitting Fair get new that among many
pollution-creating industries, textile has a larger share in terms of its
impact with regard to noise, air, and effluent. It is, therefore, felt
worthwhile to study the environmental hazards associated with various
operations of textiles. In this paper, pollution arising out of noise and air
is discussed. Areas of concern and their appropriate rectifying procedures are
also taken into account.
Ecological degradation happens in natural
fiber right from cultivation to finishing of the ultimate product. Prominent
parameters and the possible package of corrective measures are highlighted.
Synthetic fiber industry is not an exception to environmental pollution and
therefore various pollution-creating activities are pointed out. Management of
various textile wastes is also mentioned in this paper.
Introduction
Indian textile industry is a unique
combination of growth, development and export performance. This identity is now
been checked and challenged. Where is the problem? The concern is because of
the anthropogenic sources of pollution. Green parties today insisting upon the
manufacturing, processing and disposal of textile products as per environmental
norms. The commercial decision in global business now depends on how much
conscious we are in protecting our environment. So, there is a wake-up call for
the textile industry.
What we are doing to harm our environment?
Which are the areas causing destruction to our biosphere? What should we do to
remain in the competition? Will our business exist? These are the questions to
be investigated and the motivating factor for this study.
#??#
Eco Degradation in Textile
Industry
Textile industry contributes 30% of India’s
export. It produces over 400 million meters of cloth and around 1000 million kg
of yarn per annum. The textile sector is labour intensive and nearly a million
workers are associated in various unit operations of about 700 mills. There
exist a number of important environmental benchmarks, associated with the key
environmental issues. Because of the nature of the industry, many of these are
directed towards wet processing which tends to be the most obviously polluting
sub-sector.
Textile wet processing activity contributes
about 70% of pollution in the textile industry. It is estimated that there are
around 12,500 textile processing units wherein the requirement of water ranges
from 10 litres with an average of 100 litres per kg [1]. Right from cotton
cultivation and manufacture of fibres, spinning, weaving, processing and
finishing, more than 14,000 dyes and chemicals are used and a significant
quantity of these goes in the solid, liquid and air wastes, thereby impart
pollution of air, land and surface water.
Towards the end of the 20th century, the
world has become more environmentally conscious and thus the green textile
concept is emerged to facilitate eco-management in the textile arena. Different
unit operations, which contribute to eco-degradation, are described and
analysed in this chapter.
Noise Pollution
Noise is one of the most pervasive
environmental problems. There is no doubt that it has an adverse effect on
human beings and their surroundings.
#??#
Noise Levels in Textile Machinery
1.Noise Levels in Yarn Production
Because of high spindle speeds reached on new
machines (ring spindles up to 20000 rpm, rotor up to 110000 rpm) spinning mills
can generally be assumed to generate a great deal of noise. Noise levels of 70
to 100 dB are commonly recorded in workrooms.
2.Noise Levels in Weaving and Knitting
Although considerable progress has been made
in the weaving sector over the last 20 years, the whole area of noise nuisance
and, closely associated with it, vibration coming from looms, cause major
problems.
Noise levels of 100 to 120 dB must be
expected in weaving rooms, according to the design, type, fitting, erection and
number of looms used, fabric structure, building type and size etc. The
vibration transmitted from the running looms to the building can, under certain
circumstances, cause a nuisance to the local population and damage to nearby
buildings, and to avoid these special vibration absorbers are now provided.
However, the permissible limit set up at 90
dB by Federal Standards of the USA for a maximum exposure duration of 8 hours
per day. Typical values of the noise level in textile machines are shown in
Table I.
Noise Level Remedial Measures
Noise level can be lowered by the use of
noise control enclosures, absorbers, silencers and baffles and by the use of
personal protective equipment (PPE), such as earmuffs. Where technical methods
are insufficient, noise exposure may be reduced by the use of hearing
protection and by administrative controls such as limiting the time spent in a
noisy environment and scheduling noisy operation outside normal shifts or at a
distant location. Even though noise-reducing measures may have been
incorporated in the design of the machinery, the greater output may generate
higher noise levels. For instance, every doubling of the speed of rotary
machines the noise emission rises by about 7 dB, warp knitting machines by 12
dB and in fans by around 18 to 24 dB.
#??#
Noise pollution is a problem that has
unsatisfactorily been tackled so far. Though noise-absorbing sheets are used to
cover the inner walls of loom shed, still more appropriate means need to be
devised. In modern shuttle less looms because of better engineering designs of
the machines the noise level is lesser. But those shuttle-less looms are
costly.
Source:
Subrata Das, Dr.
#??#
Wool fiber – Basics
Wool is possibly the oldest fiber known to
humans. It was one of the first fibers to be spun into yarn and woven into the
fabric.
Of the major apparel fibres, wool is the most
reusable and recyclable fibre on the planet. The eco-credentials of wool are
enhanced by its long service life and suitability to be recycled to new
textiles for clothing, resilient upholstery or products that call on its
natural resistance to fire and temperature extremes. Aside from premium
next-to-skin apparel, wool can be used in industrial applications such as
thermal and acoustic insulation or in pads to soak up oil spills.
At the disposal stage, natural fibres such as
wool reduce the impact of the textile industry on pollution and landfill
build-up. In warm, moist conditions such as in soil, wool biodegrades rapidly
through the action of fungi and bacteria to essential elements (i.e. Nitrogen
and Sulphur) for the growth of organisms as part of natural carbon and nutrient
cycles.
Growth
Wool is possibly the oldest fibre known to
humans. It was one of the first fibres to be spun into yarn and woven into a
fabric. Wool mostly comes from sheep but also from alpacas, camels, and goats.
Australia, Eastern Europe, New Zealand, and China are major wool producers. The
American woollen industry began in the Massachusetts settlements in 1630, where
each household was required by law to produce wool cloth.
Harvesting
Then, they need a haircut. The process is
called sheering. A sheering specialist can sheer 200 sheep in a day. A ewe, or
female sheep, can produce up to 15 pounds of wool. A ram, or male sheep, can 20
pounds of wool. The sheared wool is called raw wool and since sheep don’t take
showers, it must first be cleaned.
Next, the wool is carded – that means
brushing the wool to straighten the fibres. Once done by hand, these days a
carding machine passes the wool through a series of rollers covered with wire
bristles. The carded fibres are gently scraped into strands called roving. The
roving is spun into yarn that is then woven into cloth. In the past, the task
of spinning usually was the job of unmarried females – they became spinsters.
Fleece is a ball of wool taken from a single
animal in a shearing. But not all wool is equal – even when it comes from the
same animal. The highest quality wool comes from the sides, shoulders, and
back. The lowest quality comes from the lower legs.
Grading of Wool Fibers
Wool is graded for fineness and length. The
length varies from place to place on the animal, but it mostly varies amongst
sheep breeds. Australian Merino wool is 3-5 inches long. Breeds found in Texas
and California produce fibres 2.5 inches long. Wool from other breeds and other
animals may be as long as 15 inches.
Properties of Wool Fibers
This microscopic view shows us why wool is
special. The surface is a series of overlapping scales of protein, pointing
toward the tip. On the animal, this enables the foreign matter to work its way
out of the fleece. In a strand of yarn, it enables the fibres to lock with one
another. This is the key to wool’s strength.
Wool’s surface repels water. Since moisture
does not remain on the surface, woollen fabrics tend to feel dry and
comfortable even in damp weather. The inner core does absorb moisture – so much
so that wool can absorb almost double its own weight in water and still feel
reasonably dry. This absorbency also gives wool its natural resistance to
wrinkles. The absorbed moisture also holds down static electricity. And because
of the inner moisture, wool is naturally flame resistant.
Moisture in wool
The amount of water absorbed by wool is
usually referred to as ‘regain’. Regain is the ratio of the mass of water to
dry wool expressed as a percentage.
Another term also used by the textile
industry, predominately for cotton, is ‘moisture content’. Moisture content is
the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of water plus wool expressed as a
percentage.
Wool, along with cotton and to a lesser
extent nylon, is a fibre that absorbs moisture from the surrounding air to
reach an equilibrium, which depends on the relative humidity of the
environment. At ambient humidity, wool will contain 10 to 15% by weight of
water and up to 35% water at high relative humidity, which is more than most
other fibres. This water is incorporated in the internal structure of the fibre
and, therefore, is hardly noticed by the wearer. Wool garments do not feel damp
or clammy. This property enables wool to act as a buffer against sudden
environmental changes, for example, excessive perspiration during exercise or
changes in climatic conditions such as going outside from an air-conditioned
room.
Although the wool fibre can readily absorb
water vapour from the air, a garment made from wool will be water repellent to
some extent. This is because the surface of the fibre has a very thin, waxy,
lipid coating chemically bonded to the surface that cannot be easily removed.
Scouring, washing or processing will not remove this layer. The only way to
remove this layer, if required, is by
chemical treatment.
For more news , please pay attention to Cardigan
Fair.
Source: Textile School
Wool is possibly the oldest fiber known to
humans. It was one of the first fibers to be spun into yarn and woven into the
fabric.
Of the major apparel fibres, wool is the most
reusable and recyclable fibre on the planet. The eco-credentials of wool are
enhanced by its long service life and suitability to be recycled to new
textiles for clothing, resilient upholstery or products that call on its
natural resistance to fire and temperature extremes. Aside from premium
next-to-skin apparel, wool can be used in industrial applications such as
thermal and acoustic insulation or in pads to soak up oil spills.
At the disposal stage, natural fibres such as
wool reduce the impact of the textile industry on pollution and landfill
build-up. In warm, moist conditions such as in soil, wool biodegrades rapidly
through the action of fungi and bacteria to essential elements (i.e. Nitrogen
and Sulphur) for the growth of organisms as part of natural carbon and nutrient
cycles.
Growth
Wool is possibly the oldest fibre known to
humans. It was one of the first fibres to be spun into yarn and woven into a
fabric. Wool mostly comes from sheep but also from alpacas, camels, and goats.
Australia, Eastern Europe, New Zealand, and China are major wool producers. The
American woollen industry began in the Massachusetts settlements in 1630, where
each household was required by law to produce wool cloth.
Harvesting
Then, they need a haircut. The process is
called sheering. A sheering specialist can sheer 200 sheep in a day. A ewe, or
female sheep, can produce up to 15 pounds of wool. A ram, or male sheep, can 20
pounds of wool. The sheared wool is called raw wool and since sheep don’t take
showers, it must first be cleaned.
#??#
Next, the wool is carded – that means
brushing the wool to straighten the fibres. Once done by hand, these days a
carding machine passes the wool through a series of rollers covered with wire
bristles. The carded fibres are gently scraped into strands called roving. The
roving is spun into yarn that is then woven into cloth. In the past, the task
of spinning usually was the job of unmarried females – they became spinsters.
Fleece is a ball of wool taken from a single
animal in a shearing. But not all wool is equal – even when it comes from the
same animal. The highest quality wool comes from the sides, shoulders, and
back. The lowest quality comes from the lower legs.
Grading of Wool Fibers
Wool is graded for fineness and length. The
length varies from place to place on the animal, but it mostly varies amongst
sheep breeds. Australian Merino wool is 3-5 inches long. Breeds found in Texas
and California produce fibres 2.5 inches long. Wool from other breeds and other
animals may be as long as 15 inches.
Properties of Wool Fibers
This microscopic view shows us why wool is
special. The surface is a series of overlapping scales of protein, pointing
toward the tip. On the animal, this enables the foreign matter to work its way
out of the fleece. In a strand of yarn, it enables the fibres to lock with one
another. This is the key to wool’s strength.
Wool’s surface repels water. Since moisture
does not remain on the surface, woollen fabrics tend to feel dry and
comfortable even in damp weather. The inner core does absorb moisture – so much
so that wool can absorb almost double its own weight in water and still feel
reasonably dry. This absorbency also gives wool its natural resistance to
wrinkles. The absorbed moisture also holds down static electricity. And because
of the inner moisture, wool is naturally flame resistant.
#??#
Moisture in wool
The amount of water absorbed by wool is
usually referred to as ‘regain’. Regain is the ratio of the mass of water to
dry wool expressed as a percentage.
Another term also used by the textile
industry, predominately for cotton, is ‘moisture content’. Moisture content is
the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of water plus wool expressed as a
percentage.
Wool, along with cotton and to a lesser
extent nylon, is a fibre that absorbs moisture from the surrounding air to
reach an equilibrium, which depends on the relative humidity of the
environment. At ambient humidity, wool will contain 10 to 15% by weight of
water and up to 35% water at high relative humidity, which is more than most
other fibres. This water is incorporated in the internal structure of the fibre
and, therefore, is hardly noticed by the wearer. Wool garments do not feel damp
or clammy. This property enables wool to act as a buffer against sudden
environmental changes, for example, excessive perspiration during exercise or
changes in climatic conditions such as going outside from an air-conditioned
room.
Although the wool fibre can readily absorb
water vapour from the air, a garment made from wool will be water repellent to
some extent. This is because the surface of the fibre has a very thin, waxy,
lipid coating chemically bonded to the surface that cannot be easily removed.
Scouring, washing or processing will not remove this layer. The only way to
remove this layer, if required, is by
chemical treatment.
For more news , please pay attention to Cardigan
Fair.
Source: Textile School
#??#
Noise Pollution in Textile Industry: Ecological Hazards and Remedial Measures
